Faculty observation of teaching assistants (TAs) is a topic that stirs strong sentiments in both parties. Many faculty members express concerns about the time this activity requires, and they often feel reluctant to "undermine" the TA's teaching efforts by "invading" his or her classroom-- sometimes believing they have nothing of value to contribute anyway. Teaching assistants usually feel vulnerable and fear having their efforts criticized. They also worry about losing credibility with their students and the faculty member in charge of the course and ultimately with others in the department whose favorable opinion they value and need.

Given these strong negative feelings, it is quite remarkable that so many TAs who have been observed by a faculty member rate the experience as a major factor in their development and improvement as a teacher. These subjective reports are borne out by several studies demonstrating the efficacy of observation in promoting teaching development and openness in teaching. When faculty visit TAs' classrooms, the critical variable that determines the success of the observation is the way in which the experience is framed and conducted by the observer.

Framing the Experience

If you plan to use classroom observations in your course, it is important that you do so for everyone teaching with you. Observations of some, but not all, of your TAs may cause them to worry that they are being singled out for doing a poor job. Let TAs know before the quarter begins that each of them will be visited at some point in the quarter. Giving TAs regular opportunities to provide you with feedback on your own lectures will help to foster a spirit of collegiality and collaboration rather than defensiveness. Let TAs know at least a week ahead when they will be observed in their sections, what they should do to prepare, how you will behave when visiting, and what will happen afterwards.

In larger courses with more than five TAs, the amount of faculty time involved in visiting each one's section may be prohibitive. In such courses, peer observations (TAs visiting one another) can be used to provide some individual feedback for each TA. A Teaching Consultant from the Center for Teaching and Learning Services can meet with the TAs to provide guidelines and strategies for effective peer observation.

When to Observe

Decisions about dates for classroom visits should be made jointly by professor and TAs as early in the semester as possible in order to avoid scheduling conflicts later. Two visits per TA -- one early and one late in the semester -- would be ideal so that development can be tracked, but one observation is still valuable if that is all your schedule permits. Students should be told at the beginning of the semester, by both the faculty member and TAs, that they may be visited in their labs/sections by the professor or by another TA. If video cameras will be present in classrooms at any point, students should also be prepared for this and assured that the tape will not be used to evaluate them in any way. Undergraduates usually react favorably when they learn that their instructors take their teaching seriously enough to monitor and assess it.

Preparing for the Visit

Early in the semester, discuss with all the TAs together the goals of the classroom visit. Many faculty members de-mystify the process by creating, together with TAs, a checklist of the most important skills needed for effectively teaching labs or discussions. If the group decides together to use a jointly-created checklist for later classroom visits, the list can be reviewed by the observer and teacher before each visit. However, it is important that the group come to a consensus on how the checklist should be "used" (i.e. simply as a reminder of the important teaching categories, or as an actual rating sheet). Actual "ratings" should be rendered only when agreed upon by the entire group. An alternative to ratings is to have TAs identify two or three main teaching areas or questions on which they would like the observation to focus. The questions provided below in the section on "Focusing the Observation" can be used to facilitate this process. Another alternative is for the observer to take narrative notes on the class, transcribing as accurately as possible what is said and done. This narrative can then be used in much the same way as a videotape might.

If peer observations will be used, each TA in the course should pair with a fellow instructor. Newer TAs should try to pair with someone more advanced and should play the role of observer before being visited themselves. At least one day in advance of the observation, the teacher should give the observer a list of his or her objectives for the section. New TAs find it helpful to hear a few examples of reasonable objectives (e.g., to review supply and demand graphs; to see how well students understand the concept of momentum transfer by jointly working exercises on the board; to identify strengths and limitations of competing theories of moral development through group discussion of a case study). On the day of the classroom visit, the observer should arrive early to see if the teacher has any last-minute thoughts, questions, or ideas about what she or he would like the observer to focus on during the visit.

The Observer's Role during the Classroom Visit

Explain to TAs what you (or they, as peer observers) will do during the classroom visit. Most faculty and TAs prefer that the observer remain as unobtrusive as possible, sitting quietly to one side and taking notes to draw upon later. Where appropriate, the TA should note the presence of the visitor and encourage students to carry on as usual.

Following up the Classroom Observation

Debriefing sessions should be conducted as soon after the classroom visit as possible. If it is not possible to meet immediately after the section, a time for the follow-up session should be arranged and the observer should offer the TA a few words of praise before leaving. When the teacher and observer do sit down to review the session, the TA should always be allowed to offer their first impressions. Self-assessment is the primary means through which improvement takes place. After the self-assessment, the observer may then offer his or her feedback. (See the "Suggestions for Providing Feedback" section below.)

Observers should describe what they saw, taking care to avoid critical or evaluative language and limiting constructive criticism to the two or three most salient areas. If a second classroom visit is scheduled for later in the semester, the observer and TA should identify two or three areas that the TA will track and work on during the quarter and follow up on these areas during the later visit.

Focusing the Observation

Following is a list of questions to use in focusing a classroom observation. This list is certainly not exhaustive. Because there are so many elements of classroom instruction (presentation skills, questioning skills, knowledge of subject matter, classroom interaction activities and patterns, etc.), you may wish to select one or two areas of focus.

Reflecting on the Class as a Whole

• What are the objectives of this class? How are students made aware of these objectives? To what extent do you think the objectives are met?
• What do you think are the students attitudes about the class or particular activities? How are these attitudes made apparent?
• What evidence of student learning can be noted in this class?
• What did you like best about this class? Why did it go so well? What was most disappointing about the class? Why?
• What one or two things about this class seem to support student learning?
• What one or two things about this class seem to interfere with student learning?
• What one or two things would you change about this class?

Reflecting on Presentation Skills

• What is done to inform students about the sequence of content/activities?
• Do important ideas stand out? What does the instructor do to help students recognize important ideas/concepts?
• Note the examples used during the presentation. Do they help clarify the concept? Why or why not? Will they help students remember the concept?
• What does the instructor do to help students appreciate the relevance of the content/skills they are learning?
• What is being done to engage the students in the presentation?

Reflecting on Interaction and Rapport

• How would you describe the instructor/student relationship? What incidents support that description?
• How would you describe the student-to-student relationship? What incidents support that description?
• What is done to encourage/discourage participation? Consider some of the following: verbal and nonverbal reinforcement given by instructor and/or students, amount and kind of guidance provided for activities, amount of wait time after questions, wording of questions.
• What questions were asked (or which activities were provided) to monitor student progress?
• What questions were asked (or which activities were provided) to stimulate thinking and discussion?
• What is the general interaction pattern? (e.g., Instructor-student? Student-instructor? Student-student? Instructor-group?)
• What is the ratio of teacher talk to student talk?
• Which students are participating? (Try charting participation for a class period. Create a seating chart and mark each time an individual participates in the class. At the end of the class use the chart to answer the following questions: Which individual participated the most? What percentage of the overall participation was done by that individual? What percentage of the overall participation was done by the three or four most verbally active participants? What percentage of students did not participate at all? Can any generalizations be made about the nonparticipants?)

Suggestions for Providing Feedback

Feedback is information given about performance. It is much more helpful to provide specific information about what is correct about performance ("catching people doing something right") than it is to focus primarily on what is incorrect. Providing positive feedback is a sophisticated, learned skill; no one is born with it. It takes will and quite a bit of practice to learn to do it well.

Characteristics of Useful Feedback

The following is expanded by Berquist from a list originally brainstormed by Lehner and Wright in 1963. (Berquist, W.H. and S.R. Phillips. A Handbook for Faculty Development, Vol. I, 1975. Dansville, NY: The Council for the Advancement of Small Colleges, pp. 224-224.)

1. It is descriptive rather than evaluative. By describing one's own reactions, it leaves the individual free to use it or not to use it. By avoiding evaluative language, it reduces the need for the individual to respond defensively.
2. It is specific rather than general. To be told that one is "dominating" will probably not be as useful as to be told that "in the conversation that just took place, you did not appear to be listening to what others were saying, and I felt forced to accept your arguments."
3. It is focused on behavior rather than on the person. It is important that we refer to what a person does rather than to what we think or imagine. Thus we might say that a person "talked more than anyone else in this meeting" rather than that the person is a "loud-mouth." The former allows for the possibility of change; the latter implies a fixed personality trait.
4. It takes into account the needs of both the receiver and giver of feedback. Feedback can be destructive when it serves only our needs and fails to consider the needs of the person on the receiving end. It should be given to help, not to hurt. We too often give feedback because it makes us feel better or gives us a psychological advantage.
5. It is directed toward behavior which the receiver can do something about. Frustration is only increased when a person is reminded of some shortcoming over which there is no control.
6. It is solicited rather than imposed. Feedback is most useful when the receiver has formulated the kind of question which those observing can answer or when the person actively seeks feedback.
7. In general, feedback is most useful at the earliest opportunity after the given behavior (depending on the person's readiness to hear it, support available from others, and so forth). The reception and use of feedback involve many possible emotional reactions. Excellent feedback presented at an inappropriate time may do more harm than good.
8. It involves sharing information the receiver can use rather than the amount we would like to give. To overload a person with feedback is to reduce the possibility that he or she may be able to use it effectively. When we give advice we tell the person what to do and, to some degree, take away the freedom to decide.
9. It concerns what is said and done, or how, not why. The "why" takes us from the observable to the inferred and involves assumptions regarding motive or intent. Telling a person what his or her motivations or intentions are more often than not tends to alienate the person and contributes to a climate of resentment, suspicion, and distrust; it does not contribute to learning or development. It is dangerous to assume that we know why a person says or does something, or what is "really" meant, or what is "really" trying to be accomplished. If we are uncertain of motives or intent, this uncertainty itself is feedback, however, and should be revealed.
10. It is checked to ensure clear communication. One way of doing this is to have the receiver try to rephrase the feedback to see if it corresponds to what the sender had in mind. No matter what the intent, feedback is often threatening and thus subject to considerable distortion or misinterpretation.
11. It is checked to determine degree of agreement from others. Is this one person's impression or an impression shared by others? Such "consensual validation" is of value to both sender and receiver.
12. It is followed by attention to the consequences of the feedback. The person who is giving feedback may greatly improve helping skills by becoming acutely aware of the effects of the feedback. It can also be of continuing help to the recipient of the feedback.
13. It is an important step toward authenticity. Constructive feedback opens the way to a relationship which is built on trust, honesty, and genuine concern. Through such a relationship, we will have achieved one of the most rewarding experiences that anyone can achieve and will have opened a very important door to personal learning and growth.

Examples of Constructive, Discipline-Specific Feedback

• Your use of humor, as when you told the "see me after class" joke to illustrate the importance of context, created a relaxed atmosphere.
• Students participated eagerly. In fact, fifteen hands shot up when you asked for a definition of "marginal costing."
• Your contrast between a schizophrenic and a manic-depressive, using the two case histories, helped students appreciate the complexity of mental health disorders.
• Your quotation of Roscoe Pound emphasized the importance of law professors involving themselves in public life.
• Your discussion of field work methods vs. survey research seemed unfocused until you gave three concrete illustrations.
• Students shook their heads, indicating confusion, when you mentioned the Okla. Supreme Court's decision to uphold utility rate increases enacted by the city in 1971, but your clarification of the case during questioning seemed to resolve any difficulties.
• Students seemed to benefit from the peer review sessions you held with their comparison-contrast rough drafts. They frequently consulted your guidelines as they reviewed each other's papers. I overheard comments such as, "Thanks, I never thought of that," and "Thanks for those two concrete examples."

Example of Concrete Suggestions for Improvement

• I could not see your illustration of a hasse diagram clearly from the back of the room. Perhaps you could consider a larger drawing, an overhead projector, or a handout.
• I felt that the students seemed unusually tense during the drill over the past tense (imperfect). Have you thought about having the entire class repeat a mispronounced word rather than the individual student?
• I was uncertain about the material when you shifted into aggression modeling and reverse modeling. Some examples from current TV programs might have added interest and clarity.