In recent years, critical thinking has become an increasingly important topic in the world of higher education. The following discussion attempts to answer some of the most frequently asked questions about the topic.

What do you mean by "critical thinking?"

As with many "hot topics" people often discuss critical thinking without having a clear, mutually agreed-upon definition. Multiple definitions of critical thinking exist that are either general or discipline specific. However, in its broadest sense (in terms of applying to any discipline), we can define critical thinking as the process of forming sound, well-informed beliefs and judgments based on valid evidence, logical reasoning, and active awareness and scrutiny of one’s assumptions, biases, and thought process.

To foster this kind of thinking in your students, you will need to require that they go beyond asking "What knowledge exists?" and "How do I solve this problem?" The concrete skills they need to develop include, but are not limited to, the following:

• Analysis of complex issues and make informed decisions;
• Synthesis of information in order to arrive at reasoned conclusions;
• Evaluation of the logic, validity, and relevance of data;
• Solving challenging problems;
• Use of knowledge and understanding to generate and explore new questions;
• Questioning the assumptions of those in authority and conventional wisdom;
• Distinguishing between observation and inference;
• Identification of the axioms/assumptions in any argument and judge their validity;
• Identification of the nature of the reasoning being used, and ability to know when inductive or deductive reasoning is required;
• Identification of non-sequiturs and other forms of specious reasoning;
• Ability to recognize when jargon, technical terms, or appeals to authority are being used as a cover for lack of good arguments;
• Ability to recognize when an argument is no longer valid and requires either new evidence or information to advance; and
• Ability to recognize circular reasoning.

These skills are applicable across disciplines, although exact applications to your subject area will vary.

Also, it is essential to have a clear picture of what a critical thinker does in your subject area. This will help you to structure course testing and assignments, to communicate clear expectations to your students, and to model critical thinking appropriately.

What critical thinking skills are necessary for success in your courses?

First, think critically about the skills you want students to learn in your courses, and why. Which of these are general critical thinking skills? Which are discipline-specific? Be prepared to explain this to your students at the beginning of the term.

How can you assess students' critical thinking skills and background knowledge at the start of your courses?

Determining this at the beginning of the term allows you to tailor your selection and presentation of material so that it challenges students appropriately — not too much or too little. Consider creating a short diagnostic tool for this purpose, such as a questionnaire asking students to list related or prerequisite courses taken, and to describe their beliefs about your subject. Review their responses carefully, and think critically about how you can incorporate this knowledge into your course planning.

How can you use group discussion to promote critical thinking?

Researchers have found consistently that interaction among students, in the form of well-structured group discussions, plays a central role in stimulating critical thinking. Discussing course material and its applications allows students to formulate and test hypotheses, practice asking thought-provoking questions, hear other perspectives, analyze claims, evaluate evidence, and explain and justify their reasoning. As they become more sophisticated and fluent in thinking critically, students can observe and critique each others' reasoning skills.

How will you demonstrate or model critical thinking?

Instructor modeling of critical thinking skills is crucial for teaching critical thinking successfully. By making your own thought processes explicit in class — explaining your reasoning, evaluating evidence for a claim, probing the credibility of a source, or even describing what has puzzled or confused you — you provide a powerful example to students, particularly if you invite them to join in; e.g., "Can you see where we're headed with this?" "I can't think of other explanations; can you?" "This idea/principle struck me as difficult or confusing at first, but here's how I figured it out." You can encourage students to emulate this by using them in demonstrations, asking them to "think out loud" in order for classmates to observe how they reason through a problem.

How can you interact with students so as to promote critical thinking?

Develop the habit of asking questions that require students to think critically, and tell students that you really expect them to give answers! In particular, Socratic questioning encourages students to develop and clarify their thinking: e.g., "Would your answer hold in all cases?" "How would you respond to a counter-example or counter-argument?" "Explain how you arrived at that answer?"

This is another skill that students can learn from your example, and can use in working with each other. Providing regular opportunities for pair or small group discussions after major points or demonstrations during lectures is also important: this allows students to process the new material, connect it to previously learned topics, and practice asking questions that promote further critical thinking. Obviously, conveying genuine respect for student input is essential. Communicating the message that you value and support student contributions and efforts to think critically increases confidence, and motivates students to continue building their thinking skills. An essential component of this process is the creation of a climate where students feel comfortable with exploring the process of reasoning through a problem without being "punished" for getting the wrong answer.

How can you structure assignments to promote critical thinking?

Writing assignments are an excellent vehicle for promoting critical thinking. In a paper, you can require students to provide valid evidence and arguments in favor of claims that they support and those they do not, thus encouraging them to consider more than their own perspectives. Writing well requires students to plan and organize their thoughts logically, and to know their topic thoroughly and proficiently. Creating activities in which students practice applying knowledge learned in class to new problems or everyday experience, encourages them to examine their assumptions and make judgments about the fit between theory and application, principle and practice. Problem-solving assignments are obviously an integral part of courses in mathematics, statistics, and the sciences, as they allow students to develop and refine the reasoning and hypothesis-testing abilities necessary for success in these disciplines. However, instructors in other subject areas can also consider how to help students develop discipline-relevant problem-solving skills, particularly concerning ill-structured and new problems. Possibilities for such activities are endless, and are best developed by instructors to meet the unique needs of their students, disciplines, and subject matter.

How can you test students so as to require and reward critical thinking?

Developing appropriate testing and evaluation of students is an important part of building critical thinking practice into your teaching. If students know that you expect them to think critically on tests, and you provide the necessary guidelines and preparation beforehand, they are more likely to think critically as they study and learn in your courses. Design test items that require higher-order thinking skills such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation, rather than simple recall of facts; ask students to explain and justify all claims made; instruct them to make inferences or draw conclusions that go beyond given data. Essays and problems are the most obvious form of item to use for testing these skills, but well-constructed multiple-choice items can also work well. Consider carefully how you will evaluate and grade tests that require critical thinking, and develop clear criteria that can be shared with the students.

How can you assess student critical thinking performance throughout the term?

In order to make informed decisions about student critical thinking and learning, you need to assess student performance and behavior in class as well as on tests and assignments. Paying careful attention to signs of inattention or frustration, and asking students to explain them, can provide much valuable information about what you may need to change in your teaching approach. Similarly, signs of strong engagement or interest can tell you a great deal about what you are doing well to get students to think. Brief classroom assessment instruments, such as asking students to write down the clearest and most confusing points for them in a class session, can be very helpful for collecting a lot of information quickly about student thinking and understanding.

How can you use assessment results to inform your teaching?

The key to the best use of ongoing assessment techniques, of course, is that you (a) think critically about the results and what they say about student thinking and learning at that point, (b) make informed decisions about any changes in your teaching connected with the assessment, and (c) explain this process carefully to students. This tells them that you take their input seriously and are making genuine efforts to incorporate it, within reason, and once more, you are modeling good critical thinking practice.

How can you afford to spend time focusing on teaching students to think critically when you have so much content to cover?

Most importantly, teaching critical thinking and covering the necessary content in courses should not, and need not, be mutually exclusive. Doing both is not only possible, but very highly desirable. Giving students a great deal of content with no discussion of how to analyze, integrate, or apply it will leave them with nothing but a collection of discrete pieces of information to cram into their minds for the tests. They will not understand it thoroughly and will forget most of it within a week of the final exam because they lacked an essential understanding of the material and its underlying assumptions. If measured by the amount of information actually retained and an increased ability to continue to learn and assimilate new knowledge, focusing on "learning how to learn" a subject creates a far greater return for student and faculty time and energy spent.

Recognizing that the need to cover certain topics in most classes is very real, however, you must set priorities. Think about what must be covered in your class, and what is not essential for students to know. This will depend partially on your students each term, and their reasons for taking your classes, and will necessitate talking with colleagues in your department about these issues as well. Communicating and coordinating your teaching efforts in this fashion will help all of you make informed choices about how best to teach students what they need to know, and how best to think about it.

Several of the articles reviewed on this website offer original and helpful perspectives on teaching critical thinking without sacrificing content coverage.