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    Country Reports

AUSTRIA

Fifth periodic report submitted 5 October 1999 (CEDAW/C/AUT/5 )

Since the Second World War the Republic of Austria has never violated any political, democratic or humanitarian principles.  There can be no doubt but that we are seriously committed to tolerance, openness and a respect for human rights. [1]    -Federal Chancellor Wolfgang Schüssel

BASIC COUNTRY INFORMATION

Government type: federal republic

Constitution: 1920; revised 1929 (reinstated 1 May 1945)

Population, 1999 estimate: 8,139,299

Ethnicities: 99.4% German, 0.3% Croatian, 0.2% Slovene, 0.1% Other

Religion: 78% Roman Catholic, 5% Protestant, 4.5% Other, 9% No religious group, 3.5% no response*

GDP, 1998 estimate: US$184.5 billion

GDP, real growth rate, 1999 estimate: 2.2%

GDP per capita: US$22,700

Inflation rate: 0.8%

Unemployment rate: 3.6%

Major industries: construction, machinery, vehicles and parts, food, chemicals, lumber and wood processing, paper and paperboard, communications equipment and tourism

Population Growth Rate, 1999 estimate: 0.09%

Infant mortality rate, 1999: 5.1  (per 1,000 live births)

Net migration rate, 1999:  1.32 (per 1,000 population)

Life expectancy at birth, 1999

            Total: 77.48 years

            Female: 80.82 years

            Male: 74.31 years

Military expenditures, 1999 estimate: US$1.8 billion

Military expenditures, 1999 estimate: 0.82% of GDP

Illicit drugs: transshipment point for Southwest Asian heroin and South American cocaine destined for Western Europe.

Sources: World Factbook 1999 [2] , Austria: The Country and its People [3] , Economic Survey of Europe, No. 2 [4] ,  Economic Survey of Europe, No. 1 [5] , Labour Market Studies: Austria [6]

Recent Political Events

As a result of the October 3, 1999 national elections, the radical conservative Freedom Party (FPÖ) won an unprecedented 52 seats in Parliament, second only to the Social Democrats (SPÖ), which won 65 seats.  In early February 2000, amidst demonstrations in Austria and criticism from around the world, Austrian President Thomas Klestil swore in a new government coalition that included the FPÖ. 

The charismatic leader and president of the FPÖ, Jörg Haider, has been at the center of much of the controversy.  His pro-Nazi policy comments, for which he has apologized repeatedly, and anti-immigrant comments (for which he remains stridently unapologetic) have come to symbolize the perceived threat posed by the FPÖ.  Though Haider, current governor of Carinthia in southern Austria, never was a member of the coalition, world leaders took seriously his profound influence on the Freedom Party and the potential human rights violations that could result from FPÖ inclusion in a “Black-Blue” Coalition.  Many nations, including the EU countries, imposed sanctions on Austria.  Due largely to international pressure, Haider resigned as party president.  His choice for a successor, Susanne Riess-Passer, became the new head of the FPÖ party, though most agree that Haider still wields the most influence in the party, even without the title of president. 

STATUS OF WOMEN IN AUSTRIA UNDER SPECIFIC CEDAW ARTICLES:

CONVENTION ARTICLE 2

 OBLIGATIONS TO ELIMINATE DISCRIMINATION 

Earlier this year, the Federal Ministry for Women’s Affairs was abolished. The Association of Austrian Women Lawyers calls the dismantling of the Ministry for Women’s Affairs an infringement of rights according to the EU Council’s 1997 Amsterdam Contract. [7]

CONVENTION ARTICLE 5

 SEX ROLES AND STEREOTYPING

Media Stereotypes and Neutral Language

In the media, stereotypes of women and men are common.  For example, a television program recently advertised free breast enlargement to the winners of a contest. Women’s organizations also criticized a Tyrolean billboard campaign slogan that read, “The country needs strong men.” [8]  

The movement toward gender-neutral language is also resisted.  One recent example is the refusal of the Austrian journal, Der Österreichische Journalist, to change its name in order to reflect the contributions of women writers and subscribers. [9]    

Sex Roles

Work in the home is to be shared equally by man and woman, according to Austrian law.  Federal Minister for Social Security and Generations Elisabeth Sickl claimed that this equality must be learned by individual families and “that it will solve itself.” [10] Representatives of the Green party pointed out that many women are much less optimistic, having signed a document, das Frauenvolksbegehren, calling for more institutional support from the government. [11]  

In the workforce, many women face discrimination based on custom and the persistence of traditional perceptions of women.  Lore Weisswasser, a counseling and coaching specialist, claims that men in many fields still favor working with male colleagues because they question women’s competence and are uncomfortable taking counsel from a woman. [12]

CONVENTION ARTICLE 6

 TRAFFICKING IN WOMEN AND PROSTITUTION

It is estimated that about 80 percent of the 6,000 to 8,000 unregistered  prostitutes in Vienna are not Austrians. [13]   Many of these prostitutes are victims of trafficking.  Austria is both a transit and destination point in East/West trafficking.  Though laws are in place to punish traffickers who bring women into Austria for prostitution or for other purposes, NGOs report that enforcement is weak. [14]   It remains difficult to prosecute traffickers, because so few women are willing to testify to the abuses they have suffered because they fear retribution or other consequences.  Anna Kowalska of Latin American Exiled Women of Austria (LEFÖ) reports that these women have good reason to fear. [15]   Even though these women have some access to care and counseling in their native tongue until they testify against the perpetrator, these rights are generally cut off abruptly following court proceedings.  After their set term of residence expires, Kowalska explains:

It is no longer possible to obtain a residence or work permit for the woman concerned.  She has to return to her homeland.  No account is taken of possible dangers to the woman or her family nor of her material and psychological situation.  That she has been the victim of a human rights violation and therefore has a right to compensation is regarded as irrelevant. [16]

As a result, many trafficked women continue to live with abuse rather than face deportation or losing their jobs.

Approximately 200 minors are believed to be working as prostitutes in Vienna. [17]   The Ministry of the Family reported its concern with these findings.  Trafficking in foreign wives is also a problem, according to Kowalska, who sees cases of abusive Austrian husbands who threaten to notify authorities of their “fraudulent marriages” or otherwise  incriminate their wives. LEFÖ has documented “the disastrous upshot of the combination of social prejudices, personal dependence and legal stipulations” that characterize these cases. [18]  

An intervention center opened in 1998 in Vienna oriented towards the protection of trafficked women. [19]   Austria has also hosted numerous conferences condemning trafficking in women, including the 1998 East/West Conference on trafficking in women and the UN Convention on Transnational Organized Crime.  It is not clear why the Austrian interministerial working group on trafficking in women  disbanded in 1998. 

CONVENTION ARTICLES 7 & 8

 NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL POLITICAL AND PUBLIC LIFE

Three political parties in Austria apply quota systems for female participation in the European Parliament.  The Greens set their quota at 50 percent, the Austrian People’s Party (ÖVP) at 33 percent, and the Social Democratic Party at 25 percent. [20]   Of Austria’s 21 members, 33 percent are women. [21]   Representatives of the FPÖ have spoken out against quotas.

The abolition of the Ministry of Women’s Affairs has caused quite a stir in Austria.  The FPÖ has repeatedly defended the move. One representative claimed, “No one is concerned that there will no longer be family policy without an independent Ministry for the Family.  Why saving a post and therewith, the salary of a Minister should mean the end of women’s policy is incomprehensible.” [22]   Elisabeth Sickl (FPÖ) considers herself the new Minister of Women’s Affairs, since Women’s Affairs is now a sub-section of the Ministry of Social Security and Generations, which she heads. [23]  

Many women’s groups disagree with the FPÖ assessment of the situation.  Many also consider the symbolic status of grouping Women’s Affairs with issues facing children, families and animals as sub-sections of the Ministry of Social Security and Generations a regressive stereotype. One report claims that planned austerity measures threaten the financial survival of 180 women’s projects across Austria. [24]   Dwora Stein, Central Secretary of the trade union for the privately employed, has pointed out discrepancies between FPÖ claims and  actions that justify the perception that FPÖ promises may be unreliable. [25] Barbara Prammer, former Minister of Women’s Affairs, also fears that compensatory measures needed to help women overcome de facto discrimination will be forgotten under the new cabinet system. [26] Prammer was able to quadruple the Ministry’s budget while serving as its head and claims that structures, plans and achievements that have been made over decades could be destroyed with no one to speak up in defense of women at the proper times. [27]

The new government is emphasizing efficiency and carrying out evaluations of federally funded programs.   Stein emphasizes that it is not evaluations themselves that are bad, but depending upon who establishes the evaluation criteria, “One can evaluate projects to death.” [28]    Prammer stresses that evaluations can be used to force women’s organizations to compete against each other, thereby destroying any solidarity between them. [29]

According to Austria’s Fifth Periodic Report to CEDAW, political participation and representation of woman at the Province level varies widely.  While 34 percent of Vienna’s Province government officials are women, representation in the other eight Provinces ranges from six to 26 percent. [30]   It is unclear what is being done to encourage participation in the regions where representation of women in government is particularly low.  At the local level, the situation is even more inequitable.  In 1998, for example, only 1.5 percent of Austria’s cities and towns had women mayors. [31]   Emma Liendl, mayor of Lödersdorf, explained that whenever a woman takes on a leadership position, those surrounding her become uneasy. [32]

CONVENTION ARTICLE 10

 EDUCATION

The number of women in Austria now entering the university exceeds the number of men. [33]   Though the climate at Austria’s universities is reportedly becoming more friendly toward women [34] , Women’s Studies is not institutionalized.  There are no chairs in Women’s Studies at universities or research institutes and only two or three researchers are engaged as Women’s Studies experts. [35]   

CONVENTION ARTICLE 11

 EMPLOYMENT

Equal Opportunities and career field segregation

According to the Directorate-General for Employment, Industrial Relations and Social Affairs of the European Commission, “Women are under-represented in the field of new technologies and it is of crucial importance in the future to avoid segregation and to integrate women in the new ‘high tech’ sector.” [36] Austria has hosted several conferences which targeted ways to prepare women for work in information technologies.  Exemplary among these were ‘Employment 2002, the future for women’ in Linz, and ‘IST ‘98 Information Society Technologies – Living and Working in the Information Society’ in Vienna.  In accordance with the recommendations of the latter, the now defunct Office of the Austrian Minister for Women’s Affairs and Consumer Protection launched a program to promote women’s participation in these fields of the future. [37]   The current status of this initiative under the new cabinet system is unknown.

Aside from high tech careers, many other fields remain dominantly male.  Whereas the German language has  officially recognized male and female forms for most careers, there is no official German word for a woman construction worker. There are only six women who are currently pursuing an apprenticeship in construction work.  In 1998, the Wirtschaftskammer (chamber of commerce) reported 4148 male construction apprentices.  Nadine Längle, one of the six women construction work students, said that she had do a great deal more than the boys in order to be accepted. [38]   In the sub-sectors of construction, mining, fishing, and hotels/restaurants, the concentrations of men are very high, in some cases as high as 90 percent. [39]

Sectoral (horizontal) segregation is also evident in the generally lower-paying fields where women comprise more than 60 percent of all employees: education, health, social work and private household work. [40] Though 60 percent of Austria’s teachers are women, only about seven percent of university teaching jobs are held by women. [41]   Austria has the fewest women professors of any European country–only four percent. [42]

Equal Opportunity

Women seeking educational apprenticeships are discriminated against. Forty percent of all apprenticeships are restricted to men. [43] What statistics are available that detail the effect gender-neutral apprenticeship subsidies and other programs have had on the gendered composition of available apprenticeships? 

Employment quotas

Civil service areas employing less than 40 percent women currently have employment quotas that require them to hire women of equivalent qualifications ahead of men. There are no penalties for the failure to reach the 40 percent target. [44]   The lack of enforcement is counterintuitive to the intended goal of the policy.  Many FPÖ representatives oppose such quotas and consider them anti-equality. Without effective and enforceable quotas, the elimination of de facto discrimination against women is hindered. 

Equal remuneration

The average Austrian man earns between 28 and 32 percent more than the average Austrian woman. [45]   When asked about this problem, Minister Sickl agreed that it remains a problem, even though equal pay is guaranteed by Austrian law.  Sickl claims that sites where women can seek information and counsel are important, because they will lead women to the equal treatment commission where more problems can be solved.   

The right to job security

Earlier this year, Jörg Haider fired the Carinthian regional women’s representative (Frauenbeauftragte) after she expressed regret at the dismantling of the Ministry for Women’s Affairs.  Minister Sickl distanced herself from Haider’s action and dismissed it by calling it a party political move. [46]  

Poverty

One study estimates that as a result of FPÖ policies, 20,000 more Austrians will be unemployed  by the year 2003 and that the income gap between men and women will increase drastically. [47]   Poverty is already disproportionately feminine, according to a 1999 report on social conditions in Salzburg.  In 1997 and 1998, 70 percent of women applying for welfare benefits in Salzburg were primary providers in their  households. [48]   Throughout Austria, 6.6 percent of working women are “marginal” part-time workers–workers who make under a minimal monthly income.  Two percent of male workers fall in this category.  Thirty-three percent of “marginal” part-time employees do domestic labor.  Eighty-three percent of domestic labor employees who receive no additional insurance coverage are women.  “This group enjoys no protection from statutory social security provision and is therefore only entitled to minimal old age and invalid pensions.” [49]

Support of the Combination of family and work responsibilities

Austria has passed progressive laws requiring the sharing of household and family responsibilities.  The Green party points out, though, that other policies hinder the realization of this equality.  For example, if a family’s combined income exceeds a certain level, the family is ineligible for a number of federal benefits (Familieneinkommensobergrenzen). [50]   Because the vast majority of men work and earn more than women for equivalent labor, the policy is a disincentive for married women to work at all. 

Both mothers and fathers have the option of receiving maternity/paternity benefits to stay home and raise a newborn child.  Currently, only a small percentage of those drawing the benefits are men. 

Retirement pensions

Proposed changes to Austria’s retirement policies are expected to pose problems for women.  If the age for early retirement is raised, as is currently proposed, women will be disproportionately affected.  Not only will they earn smaller pensions because of sex-based income disparity, but older women who cannot find work because of their age will be forced to live in poverty even longer until they are eligible for retirement benefits. [51]   The government has stated its intent to transform pensions so that women who have been without an independent claim to a pension because of their dependence on the pension of a wage-earning spouse can be entitled to their own pension. [52]   In 1998 and 1999, though, an employed woman who had previously been the dependent of a spouse received only 58.5 percent of the pension a man received. [53]

Maternity leave

An amendment to the Maternity Protection Act of 1995 bans  the employment of breast-feeding mothers.  Austria considers this non-discriminatory. [54]   The justification of this policy is unclear. 

When determining severance pay, maternity leave time is not factored in, though other federally approved leaves of absence are. [55]  

Night labor

Austria reserved to Article 11 of CEDAW on the issue of protective laws and has not yet adopted night work policies that treat men and women equally. [56]    Though women are currently able to attain waivers that allow them to work at night, the course of action that will allow Austria to remove this reservation remains unclear.  The EU requires Austria to rectify this situation by 2001. 

Sexual harassment

The first women’s health report  in lower Austria (Niederösterreich)  found that three of five women in the region have experience with sexual harassment. [57]   Sexual harassment has only been criminalized as sex-based discrimination since 1993. [58]   Even so, according to Lawyers for Equal Treatment (Anwaltschaft für Gleichbehandlungsfragen), women have been much more likely to give in to pressure to keep quiet since 1993.  This means a stark reduction in the number of discriminatory acts that are made public.  Austrian newspaper, Der Standard, reported  that employers utilize all available legal means to take legal action against women who complain about sexual harassment.  Women are strongly discouraged from lodging official complaints or seeking compensation for damages. [59]    

CONVENTION ARTICLE 12

 HEALTH CARE AND REPRODUCTIVE RIGHTS

Mentally handicapped women may be involuntarily sterilized by family “executors” while no mention is made of the policy regarding mentally handicapped men. [60]  

Women’s health centers seem to be successful in addressing the health needs of women and girl children in different stages of life.  In Graz, for example, the women’s health center was visited by approximately 7000 women and girls in 1999.  This marks an almost 25 percent increase over the previous year.  Women can visit the center seeking advice and information or gynecological care.  The center offers presentations on diverse topics such as exercise, early detection of cancer and emotional and spiritual health.  Pregnancy tests are administered for less than US $2. [61]

GENERAL RECOMMENDATION 19

 VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN

An estimated 300,000 women are abused annually in Austria.  It is also estimated that less than 10 percent of the abused women file complaints. [62] One report found that violence in the Austrian family against women and children is highly correlated, with children being abused in 70 percent of all cases where women are being abused. [63]    Battered women’s shelters in Austria fill past capacity after only a short time wherever they open. In 1997, 237 endangered women had to be turned away because there was no space for them in a shelter. [64]

Through the Austrian Information Center against Violence, an archive of materials on violence in the family is open to researchers and students.  It is available on CD-ROM now and will soon be on the Internet. [65]   In April 2000, the initiative “Women helping Women” in Innsbruck introduced its new program, “No to Violence” which broadens the focus of the women’s group not just to the motives of the aggressor, but also to the victims of violence. [66]   The goal is to end the perception that violence in the family is a taboo topic.  Despite numerous programs and initiatives, violence against women persists.

The Struggle for funding  

Renate Bauer, the Vienna city women’s councilor (Frauenstadträtin), claimed that at least 20 women’s organizations in Vienna alone, including women’s violence counseling centers, are fighting for survival. [67]   Because of the threat of budget cuts to the Information Center against Violence, the secretary position was terminated and the financial security of the center is uncertain. [68]    The Ministry of Education and the Ministry for Social Security and Generations have unofficially promised some funding, but it remains to be seen whether the center will receive sufficient funding to continue operation.  No legislative provisions exist to guarantee funding. [69]

An anti-violence network run by the Information Center, Women Against Violence Europe (WAVE), has not received 170.000 Schillings of the money promised them as federal cofinancing. [70]   WAVE provides a valuable service by publishing information and listing resources on their website on developments regarding violence to women.  Funding for a free crisis line telephone service, also run by the Information Center, runs out in May 2000.  The crisis line was funded by the now defunct Ministry of Women’s Affairs and a funding extension is currently being sought. [71]  

Austrian Law and Victims’ Rights

Battered women have the right to be questioned by a female police officer. [72]   Women were first permitted to do standard police duties in 1991 and now only about eight percent of the police officers are women. [73]   If all battered women knew of their  right, the burden on women police officers would be disproportionate because there are so few.  Data were also unavailable regarding the distribution of women police officers by region.  Many victims currently undergo several interrogations.  This may result in secondary traumatization. [74]

The Federal Law on Protection from Violence in the Family (Federal Gazette 759/96) of 1997 provides law enforcement power to expel a potential perpetrator of violence from his family home if a dangerous attack is imminent. [75]   Though this allows women and children victims of domestic abuse the right to stay in their own home, the guarantee of safety is limited.  Though the police may confiscate the perpetrator’s keys to the home and even resort to coercive power to make him leave the premises, failure to comply with the ban on return results only in an “administrative fine” which “may be imposed on him.” [76]   Only repeated violations of the ban may lead to  arrest. [77]    While this is a great improvement over previous legislation which required proof of an act of severe violence as the prerequisite for the issuance of any legal injunction, there is still concern that the safety of (potential) victims of violence may not be ensured. 

Legal counsel

In penal  cases, victims of violence are only entitled to legal aid if they are able to pay lawyer’s fees.  In civil  cases, the court decides whether a woman should be granted legal aid.  The criterion is generally low income and if granted, the victim is assigned a lawyer by the Chamber of Authorities.  Women’s support services “demand that women who have suffered violence be granted free legal counsel in every case and that they be entitled to choose their lawyer themselves.” [78]

FGM and asylum

The recent state party report explains that Austria does not recognize the threat of female genital mutilation as a ground for granting asylum, but is “currently considering the adoption of this approach.” [79]  

Migrant women and violence

Migrant women who suffer violence are often in a particularly difficult predicament.  The applicable laws state that residence in Austria will be granted only on proof of a secure source of income and standard housing.  The authorities repeatedly monitor compliance with these requirements.  However, women in particular often have no independent income and are dependent on their husbands. [80]   Rosa Logar, Austrian Women’s Shelter Network, Vienna

Migrant women are even more reluctant than Austrian women to call the police to report violence. [81]   Many migrant women who suffer domestic violence have no choice but to keep quiet about the abuse if they wish to stay in Austria. Migrant women who are married to Austrian citizens are expatriated if they divorce within four years of their marriage and cannot prove that they make a sufficient independent livelihood. [82]   Working migrant women often receive extremely low wages and have no job security.  A migrant woman who is in Austria with a family visa cannot separate from her husband and expect to stay in Austria.  She is not permitted to work with the family visa and it is extremely unlikely that she will be granted a work permit of her own after separating from her husband.  In both cases, even if the victim does not consider separation or divorce, bringing charges against her husband affects her, since she is dependent upon him for her livelihood, housing and social insurance.  Restrictions on a new law of 1998 passed to help victims of violence find work have limited its effectiveness.  To date, only a few dozen women have qualified to benefit from the law. [83]

ACTIONS BY OTHER UN HUMAN RIGHTS MECHANISMS PERTAINING TO WOMEN’S HUMAN RIGHTS

Concluding observations of the  Human Rights Committee: Austria. 19/11/98. CCPR/C/79/Add.103. (Concluding Observations/Comments)

Main Subject of Concern:

·        The persistence of violence against women is a problem in Austria

Suggestions and Recommendations:

·        The State party should provide further information about measures that counter all forms of violence against women. 

Concluding observations of the Committee against Torture: Austria. 12/11/99. CAT/C/23/2.(Concluding Observations/Comments)

Main Subjects of Concern:

·        Police are allowed to accuse a person who lodges a complaint against them of defamation.  This discourages potential complaints that make visible police brutality or other forms of abuse.

Suggestions and Recommendations:

·        Competent authorities should give the police clear instruction on avoidance of abusive behavior, emphasizing that violations will be investigated and punished. 

Concluding observations of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination: Austria. 07/04/99. CERD/C/304/Add.64. (Concluding Observations/Comments)

Main subjects of concern:

·        Although the Convention is part of domestic law, there is unwelcome subjectivity exercised in the interpretation of the rule that “decisions refusing an alien equal treatment may only be admissible if and when there is a reasonable justification”.

·        There appears to be uneven concern and lack of legal protection for the protection of certain minority groups.  While protection of Slovenian, Croatian and Hungarian minorities is commendable, corresponding protective measures are lacking for Czechs, Slovaks, Roma and the “new minorities from other parts of the world. 

Suggestions and Recommendations:

·        Continue to explore ways to provide equal and comprehensive protection to all ethnic groups living in Austria.

Concluding observations of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: Austria.14/12/94. E/C.12/1994/16. (Concluding Observations/Comments)

Main Subjects of Concern:

·        The new law on residence and residence permits may be incompatible with the Covenant provisions concerning non-discrimination.  The law limits the number of foreigners authorized to work in Austria and establishes restrictive conditions for the acquisition of an Austrian residence permit. 

·         ILO figures indicate inequalities in the remuneration of women as compared with men, especially in the private sector. 

Suggestions and Recommendations:

·        Continue work to ensure de facto equality of men and women in employment matters.

·        Take measures to ensure that non-nationals’ rights are not hindered by the implementation of recent immigration and residence legislation.

·        Monitor the effects of unemployment and reduced social welfare services on the enjoyment of the rights defined by the Covenant, especially the effects on the most vulnerable groups in society.

Concluding observations of the Committee on the Rights of the Child: Austria. 07/05/99. CRC/C/15/Add.98. (Concluding Observations/Comments)

Main Subjects of Concern:

·        There are inconsistencies between domestic law and the provisions of the Convention with regard to the right to family reunification and some rights of immigrant, asylum-seeking and refugee children.

·        Sex discrimination persists in issues affecting children.

·        Existing legislation protecting children from sexual exploitation only helps children up to the age of 14. 

Suggestions and Recommendations:

·        Undertake a study of the ages of sexual consent and sexual relations, taking into account the implications of current legislation and its effect on the realization of the rights of girl and boy children. 

 

[1] Wolfgang Schüssel, “Inaugural Statement: We are Confronted with Real Challenges,” 9 February 2000, accessed at <http://www.austria.gv.at/e/>, accessed 28 April 2000.

[2] The World Factbook 1999, online, available at <http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/au.html>, accessed 29 April 2000.

[3] “Republic of Austria: The Country and its People,” online, available at <http://www.austria.gv.at/e/oesterreich/index.htm>, accessed 17 March, 2000.

[4] Secretariat of the Economic Commission for Europe, Economic Survey of Europe (New York, UN Publications, 1999 No. 2), 32.

[5] Secretariat of the Economic Commission for Europe, Economic Survey of Europe (New York, UN Publications, 1999 No. 1), 42.

[6] L&R Sozialforschung and ECOTEC Research and Consulting Ltd, Labour Market Studies: Austria (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, October 1996), 9.

[7] Lydia Ninz , “Erste-Hilfe-Tips,” 25 March 2000, online, available at <http://diestandard.at/>, accessed 22 April 2000.

[8] “Ein Mann, ein Wort, ein Klischee,” Der Standard, 10 March 2000, online archive, available at   <http://derstandard.at/archiv/>, accessed 16 April 2000.

[9]   Katharina Krawagna-Pfeifer, “Kongress der Journalistinnen zum Nachlesen,” 18 August 1999, online, available at <http://www.derstandard.at/archiv/>, accessed 28 April 2000.  Also online at <http://www.diestandard.at/>.

[10]   Eva Linsinger, “Jetzt am falschen Fuß erwischt,” Der Standard, 9 March 2000, online archive, available at <http://derstandard.at/archiv/>, accessed 16 April 2000.

[11] “Frauenvolksbegehren,” online, available at <http://www.gruene.at/gruene.at/topics/frauen/index.htm>, accessed 27 April 2000.

[12] “Männer zweifeln oftmals an weiblicher Kompetenz,” 22 April 2000, online, available at   <http://diestandard.at/>, accessed 16 April 2000.

[13] Fifth Periodic Report of States parties, Austria, UN Publication, 5 October, 1999, CEDAW/C/AUT/5, 44.

[14] US Department of State, Austria Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 1999  (Washington, DC: Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, 25 February 2000).

[15] Anna Kowalska, “Migration and Trafficking in Women, 1999,” online, available at <http://www.wave-network.org/articles/658.htm>, accessed on May 2, 2000. 

[16] Ibid.

[17] “Rund 200 minderjährige Prostituierte in Wien”, Der Standard, 28 February 2000, online archive, available at <http://derstandard.at/archiv/>, accessed 16 April 2000.

[18] Kowalska. 

[19] Fifth Periodic Report of States parties, Austria, UN Publication, 5 October, 1999, CEDAW/C/AUT/5, 40.

[20] Directorate-General for Employment, Industrial Relations and Social Affairs, Equal Opportunities for women and men in the European Union: Annual Report 1998 (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1999), 90.

[21] Ibid.

[22] “FPÖ verteidigt Wegfall des Frauenministeriums”, Der Standard, 3 March 2000, online archive, available at <http://derstandard.at/archiv/>, accessed 16 April 2000.

[23] Ibid.

[24] Monika Bachhofer, “Österreichweit sind 180 Frauenprojekte bedroht,” Der Standard, 2 March 2000, online archive, available at <http://derstandard.at/archiv/>, accessed 16 April 2000.

[25] Lydia Ninz, “Geld für Frauenprojekte: Eine Frage der Verläßlichkeit,” 1 May 2000, online, available at <http://diestandard.at/>, accessed 10 May 2000.

[26] “Interview mit Barbara Prammer,” 7 March 2000, online, available at <http://diestandard.at/>, accessed 16 April 2000.

[27] Ibid.

[28] Lydia Ninz, “Geld für Frauenprojekte: Eine Frage der Verläßlichkeit,” 1 May 2000, online, available at <http://diestandard.at/>, accessed 10 May 2000.

[29] “Interview mit Barbara Prammer,” 7 March 2000, online, available at <http://diestandard.at/>, accessed 16 April 2000.

[30] Fifth Periodic Report of States parties, Austria, UN Publication, 5 October, 1999, CEDAW/C/AUT/5, 48.

[31] Ibid.

[32] “Zwölf einsame Kämpferinnen,” Der Standard, 11 March 2000, online archive, available at   <http://derstandard.at/archiv/>, accessed 16 April 2000.

[33] Lydia Ninz, “Uni Wien: Mehr Geld für Fakultäten, die gezielt Frauen fördern,” Der Standard, 21 March 2000, online archive, available at <http://derstandard.at/archiv/>, accessed 16 April 2000.

[34] Heide Korn, “Klima und Rhetorik an Uni frauenfreundlicher,” Der Standard, 30 March 2000, online archive, available at <http://derstandard.at/archiv/>, accessed 16 April 2000.

[35] European Commission, Women and work: Report on existing research in the European Union  (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publication of the European Community, 1999), 102.

[36] Directorate-General for Employment, Industrial Relations and Social Affairs, Equal Opportunities for women and men in the European Union: Annual Report 1998 (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1999), 67.

[37] Ibid.

[38] “Die Maurerin, eine Exotin,” 1 May 2000, online, available at <http://diestandard.at/>, accessed 16 April 2000.

[39] Directorate-General for Employment, Industrial Relations and Social Affairs, Equal Opportunities for women and men in the European Union: Annual Report 1998 (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1999), 63.

[40] Ibid.

[41] Fifth Periodic Report of States parties, Austria, UN Publication, 5 October, 1999, CEDAW/C/AUT/5, 63.

[42] Ibid., 64.

[43] Ibid., 58.

[44] US Department of State, Austria Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 1999  (Washington, DC: Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, 25 February 2000).

[45] “330.000 Österreicher gelten als arm,” Der Standard, 30 March 2000, online archive, available at   <http://derstandard.at/archiv/>, accessed 16 April 2000.

[46] Eva Linsinger, “Jetzt am falschen Fuß erwischt,” Der Standard, 9 March 2000, online archive, available at <http://derstandard.at/archiv/>, accessed 16 April 2000.

[47] “Tumpel: 20.000 Arbeitslose mehr bis 2003,” Der Standard, 7 March 2000, online archive, available at <http://derstandard.at/archiv/>, accessed 16 April 2000.

[48] “Netzwerk Frauenarmut,” 28 April 2000, online, available at <http://diestandard.at/>, accessed 5 May 2000.

[49] L&R Sozialforschung and ECOTEC Research and Consulting Ltd, Labour Market Studies: Austria (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, October 1996), 7.

[50] “Hemmnisse der Frauenerwerbstätigkeit,” Vienna, 1999, online, available at <http://www.gruene.at/> accessed 14 April 2000.

[51] “Frauen stark betroffen,” Der Standard, 5 February 2000, online archive, available at   <http://derstandard.at/archiv/>, accessed 16 April 2000.

[52] Coalition Program, “Responsibility for Austria–A Future in the Heart of Europe,” online, available at <http://www.austria.gv.at/e/>, accessed 15 May 2000.

[53] “Frauen bekommen weniger Pension,” Der Standard, 31 March 2000, online archive, available at   <http://derstandard.at/archiv/>, accessed 23 April 2000.

[54] Fifth Periodic Report of States parties, Austria, UN Publication, 5 October, 1999, CEDAW/C/AUT/5, 91.

[55] L&R Sozialforschung, 76.

[56] Fifth Periodic Report of States parties, Austria, UN Publication, 5 October, 1999, CEDAW/C/AUT/5, 86.

[57] “Junge Frauen eher belästigt,” Der Standard, 12 February 2000, online archive, available at   <http://derstandard.at/archiv/>, accessed 16 April 2000.

[58] “Bist du nicht willig, gebrauche ich Gewalt,” 27 April 2000, online, available at   <http://diestandard.at/>, accessed 5 May 2000.

[59] Ibid.

[60] US Department of State, Austria Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 1999  (Washington, DC: Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, 25 February 2000).

[61] “Grazer Frauen Gesundheitszentrum verzeichnet immer mehr Zulauf,” 2 May 2000, online, available at   <http://diestandard.at/>, accessed 5 May 2000.

[62] US Department of State, Austria Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 1999  (Washington, DC: Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, 25 February 2000).

[63] “Informationsstelle gegen Gewalt,” 1 May 2000, online, available at <http://diestandard.at/>, accessed 5 May 2000.

[64] Verein österreichische Frauenhäuser, Tätigkeitsbericht 1997, (Vienna: 1998), online, available at  <http://www.wave-network.org/articles/111.htm>, accessed on 5 May 2000.

[65] Ibid.

[66] “Frauen helfen Frauen,” 27 April 2000, online, available at <http://diestandard.at/>, accessed 5 May 2000.

[67] “Frauenvereine zittern ums Überleben,”  Der Standard, 26 February 2000, online archive, available at   <http://derstandard.at/archiv/>, accessed 16 April 2000.

[68] “Informationsstelle gegen Gewalt,” 1 May 2000, online, available at <http://diestandard.at/>, accessed 5 May 2000.

[69] Verein österreichische Frauenhäuser, Tätigkeitsbericht 1997, (Vienna: 1998), online, available at  <http://www.wave-network.org/articles/97.htm>, accessed on 5 May 2000.

[70] “Informationstelle gegen Gewalt,” Der Standard, 1 May 2000, online archive, available at   <http://derstandard.at/archiv/>, accessed 16 April 2000.

[71] Ibid.

[72] Rosa Logar, Obligation to intervene, 1998,  online, available at <http://www.wave-network.org/articles/120.htm>, accessed 5 May 2000.

[73] Rosa Logar, Police Security Act, 1998, online, available at <http://www.wave-network.org/articles/119.htm>, accessed 5 May 2000.

[74] Rosa Logar, Judicial procedures, online, available at <http://www.wave-network.org/articles/114.htm>, accessed 5 May 2000.

[75] Ibid.

[76] Fifth Periodic Report of States parties, Austria, UN Publication, 5 October, 1999, CEDAW/C/AUT/5, 22.

[77] Ibid.

[78] Rosa Logar, No free legal aid, online, available at <http://www.wave-network.org/articles/116.htm>, accessed 5 May 2000.

[79] Fifth Periodic Report of States parties, Austria, UN Publication, 5 October, 1999, CEDAW/C/AUT/5, 31.

[80] Rosa Logar, New law since 1998, online, available at <http://www.wave-network.org/articles/116.htm>, accessed 5 May 2000.

[81] Sonja Sari, The Situation of Migrant Women in Austria, 1999, online, available at <http://www.wave-network.org/articles/659.htm>, accessed 5 May 2000.

[82] Logar.

[83] Sari.

 

 

 
         

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